The hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)/MNNG HOS transforming gene (MET) pathway regulates cell growth, survival, and migration. MET is mutated or amplified in several malignancies. In myeloma, MET is not mutated, but patients have high plasma concentrations of HGF, high levels of MET expression, and gene copy number, which are associated with poor prognosis and advanced disease. Our previous studies demonstrated that MET is critical for myeloma cell survival and its knockdown induces apoptosis. In our current study, we tested tivantinib (ARQ 197), a small-molecule pharmacological MET inhibitor. At clinically achievable concentrations, tivantinib induced apoptosis by textgreater50% in all 12 human myeloma cell lines tested. This biologic response was associated with down-regulation of MET signaling and inhibition of the mitogen-activated protein kinase and phosphoinositide 3-kinase pathways, which are downstream of the HGF/MET axis. Tivantinib was equally effective in inducing apoptosis in myeloma cell lines resistant to standard chemotherapy (melphalan, dexamethasone, bortezomib, and lenalidomide) as well as in cells that were co-cultured with a protective bone marrow microenvironment or with exogenous cytokines. Tivantinib induced apoptosis in CD138+ plasma cells from patients and demonstrated efficacy in a myeloma xenograft mouse model. On the basis of these data, we initiated a clinical trial for relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma (MM). In conclusion, MET inhibitors may be an attractive target-based strategy for the treatment of MM.

Tivantinib (ARQ197) was first reported as a highly selective inhibitor of c-MET and is currently being investigated in a phase III clinical trial. However, as recently reported by us and another group, tivantinib showed cytotoxic activity independent of cellular c-MET status and also disrupted microtubule dynamics. To investigate if tivantinib exerts its cytotoxic activity by disrupting microtubules, we quantified polymerized tubulin in cells and xenograft tumors after tivantinib treatment. Consistent with our previous report, tivantinib reduced tubulin polymerization in cells and in mouse xenograft tumors in vivo. To determine if tivantinib directly binds to tubulin, we performed an in vitro competition assay. Tivantinib competitively inhibited colchicine but not vincristine or vinblastine binding to purified tubulin. These results imply that tivantinib directly binds to the colchicine binding site of tubulin. To predict the binding mode of tivantinib with tubulin, we performed computer simulation of the docking pose of tivantinib with tubulin using GOLD docking program. Computer simulation predicts tivantinib fitted into the colchicine binding pocket of tubulin without steric hindrance. Furthermore, tivantinib showed similar IC50 values against parental and multidrug-resistant cells. In contrast, other microtubule-targeting drugs, such as vincristine, paclitaxel, and colchicine, could not suppress the growth of cells overexpressing ABC transporters. Moreover, the expression level of ABC transporters did not correlate with the apoptosis-inducing ability of tivantinib different from other microtubule inhibitor. These results suggest that tivantinib can overcome ABC transporter-mediated multidrug-resistant tumor cells and is potentially useful against various tumors.

PURPOSE: MET, the high-affinity receptor for hepatocyte growth factor, is frequently deregulated in human cancer. Tivantinib (ARQ197; Arqule), a staurosporine derivative that binds to the dephosphorylated MET kinase in vitro, is being tested clinically as a highly selective MET inhibitor. However, the mechanism of action of tivantinib is still unclear. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The activity of tivantinib was analyzed in multiple cellular models, including: cells displaying c-MET gene amplification, strictly 'addicted' to MET signaling; cells with normal c-MET gene copy number, not dependent on MET for growth; cells not expressing MET; somatic knockout cells in which the ATP-binding cleft of MET, where tivantinib binds, was deleted by homologous recombination; and a cell system 'poisoned' by MET kinase hyperactivation, where cells die unless cultured in the presence of a specific MET inhibitor. RESULTS: Tivantinib displayed cytotoxic activity independently of c-MET gene copy number and regardless of the presence or absence of MET. In both wild-type and isogenic knockout cells, tivantinib perturbed microtubule dynamics, induced G2/M arrest, and promoted apoptosis. Tivantinib did not rescue survival of cells 'poisoned' by MET kinase hyperactivation, but further incremented cell death. In all cell models analyzed, tivantinib did not inhibit HGF-dependent or -independent MET tyrosine autophosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that tivantinib displays cytotoxic activity via molecular mechanisms that are independent from its ability to bind MET. This notion has a relevant impact on the interpretation of clinical results, on the design of future clinical trials, and on the selection of patients receiving tivantinib treatment.